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<title>Computer-generated imagery</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Computer-generated imagery</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="AI-generated_imagery" class="mw-redirect" title="AI-generated imagery">AI-generated imagery</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="3D_computer_graphics" title="3D computer graphics">Three-dimensional (3D)<br>computer graphics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading">

Fundamentals</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="3D_modeling" title="3D modeling">Modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="3D_scanning" title="3D scanning">Scanning</a></li>

<li><a href="3D_rendering" title="3D rendering">Rendering</a></li>

<li><a href="3D_printing" title="3D printing">Printing</a></li></ul></td>

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Primary uses</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="3D_model" class="mw-redirect" title="3D model">3D models</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer-aided_design" title="Computer-aided design">Computer-aided design</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphic_design" title="Graphic design">Graphic design</a></li>

<li><a href="Video_game" title="Video game">Video games</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_effects" title="Visual effects">Visual effects</a></li>

<li><a href="Visualization_(graphic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Visualization (graphic)">Visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_engineering" title="Virtual engineering">Virtual engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_cinematography" title="Virtual cinematography">Virtual cinematography</a></li></ul></td>

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Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul>

<li><a href="Animation" title="Animation">Animation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">computer</a></li>

<li><a href="Skeletal_animation" title="Skeletal animation">skeletal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="3D_display" title="3D display">3D display</a></li>

<li><a href="Wire-frame_model" title="Wire-frame model">Wire-frame model</a></li>

<li><a href="Texture_mapping" title="Texture mapping">Texture mapping</a></li>

<li><a href="Motion_capture" title="Motion capture">Motion capture</a></li>

<li><a href="Crowd_simulation" title="Crowd simulation">Crowd simulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_illumination" title="Global illumination">Global illumination</a></li>

<li><a href="Volume_rendering" title="Volume rendering">Volume rendering</a></li></ul></td>

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<p><b>Computer-generated imagery</b> (<b>CGI</b>) is a specific-technology or application of <a href="Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">computer graphics</a> for creating or improving images in <a href="Digital_art" title="Digital art">art</a>, <a href="Publishing" title="Publishing">printed media</a>, <a href="Training_simulation" title="Training simulation">simulators</a>, videos and video games. These images are either static (i.e. <a href="Still_image" class="mw-redirect" title="Still image">still images</a>) or dynamic (i.e. moving images). CGI both refers to 2D computer graphics and (more frequently) 3D computer graphics with the purpose of designing characters, <a href="Virtual_world" title="Virtual world">virtual worlds</a>, or scenes and <a href="Visual_effects" title="Visual effects">special effects</a> (in <a href="Film" title="Film">films</a>, television programs, commercials, etc.). The application of CGI for creating/improving <a href="Animation" title="Animation">animations</a> is called <i><a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">computer animation</a></i> (or <i>CGI animation</i>).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>The first feature film to use CGI as well as the composition of live-action film with CGI was <i><a href="Vertigo_(film)" title="Vertigo (film)">Vertigo</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which used abstract computer graphics by <a href="John_Whitney_(animator)" title="John Whitney (animator)">John Whitney</a> in the opening credits of the film. The first feature film to make use of CGI with live action in the storyline of the film was the 1973 film <i><a href="Westworld_(film)" title="Westworld (film)">Westworld</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-insider_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-insider-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first feature film to present a fully CGI character was the 1985 film <i><a href="Young_Sherlock_Holmes" title="Young Sherlock Holmes">Young Sherlock Holmes</a></i>, showcasing a fully animated stained glass knight character.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other early films that incorporated CGI include <i><a href="Demon_Seed" title="Demon Seed">Demon Seed</a></i> (1977), <i><a href="Star_Wars_(film)" title="Star Wars (film)">Star Wars</a></i> (1977),<sup id="cite_ref-insider_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-insider-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="Tron" title="Tron">Tron</a></i> (1982), <i><a href="Star_Trek_II%3A_The_Wrath_of_Khan" title="Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan">Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan</a> </i> (1982),<sup id="cite_ref-insider_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-insider-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="Golgo_13%3A_The_Professional" title="Golgo 13: The Professional">Golgo 13: The Professional</a></i> (1983),<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="The_Last_Starfighter" title="The Last Starfighter">The Last Starfighter</a></i> (1984),<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><i><a href="The_Abyss" title="The Abyss">The Abyss</a></i> (1989), <i><a href="Terminator_2%3A_Judgment_Day" title="Terminator 2: Judgment Day">Terminator 2: Judgement Day</a></i> (1991), and <i><a href="Jurassic_Park_(film)" title="Jurassic Park (film)">Jurassic Park</a></i> (1993). The first <a href="Music_video" title="Music video">music video</a> to use CGI was <a href="Will_Powers" title="Will Powers">Will Powers</a>' "Adventures in Success" (1983).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1995, <a href="Pixar" title="Pixar">Pixar</a>’s <i><a href="Toy_Story" title="Toy Story">Toy Story</a></i> became the first fully CGI feature film, marking a historic milestone for both animation and film-making.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Prior to CGI being prevalent in film, virtual reality, personal computing and gaming, one of the early practical applications of CGI was for aviation and military training, namely the <a href="Flight_simulator" title="Flight simulator">flight simulator</a>. Visual systems developed in flight simulators were also an important precursor to three dimensional computer graphics and Computer Generated Imagery (CGI) systems today. Namely because the object of flight simulation was to reproduce on the ground the behavior of an aircraft in flight. Much of this reproduction had to do with believable visual synthesis that mimicked reality.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Link Digital Image Generator (DIG) by the Singer Company (Singer-Link), was considered one of the world's first generation CGI systems.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a real-time, 3D capable, day/dusk/night system that was used by NASA shuttles, for F-111s, Black Hawk and the B-52. Link's Digital Image Generator had architecture to provide a visual system that realistically corresponded with the view of the pilot.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basic architecture of the DIG and subsequent improvements contained a scene manager followed by geometric processor, video processor and into the display with the end goal of a visual system that processed realistic texture, shading, translucency capabilities, and free of aliasing.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Combined with the need to pair virtual synthesis with military level training requirements, CGI technologies applied in flight simulation were often years ahead of what would have been available in commercial computing or even in high budget film. Early CGI systems could depict only objects consisting of planar polygons. Advances in algorithms and electronics in flight simulator visual systems and CGI in the 1970s and 1980s influenced many technologies still used in modern CGI adding the ability to superimpose texture over the surfaces as well as transition imagery from one level of detail to the next one in a smooth manner.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The evolution of CGI led to the emergence of <a href="Virtual_cinematography" title="Virtual cinematography">virtual cinematography</a> in the 1990s, where the vision of the <a href="Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">simulated</a> <a href="Camera" title="Camera">camera</a> is not constrained by the laws of physics. Availability of CGI software and increased computer speeds have allowed individual artists and small companies to produce professional-grade films, games, and fine art from their home computers.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Static_images_and_landscapes">Static images and landscapes</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Fractal_landscape" title="Fractal landscape">Fractal landscape</a> and <a href="Scenery_generator" title="Scenery generator">Scenery generator</a></div>

<p>Not only do animated images form part of computer-generated imagery; natural looking landscapes (such as <a href="Fractal_landscapes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fractal landscapes">fractal landscapes</a>) are also generated via computer <a href="Algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithms">algorithms</a>. A simple way to generate fractal surfaces is to use an extension of the <a href="Polygon_mesh" title="Polygon mesh">triangular mesh</a> method, relying on the construction of some special case of a <a href="De_Rham_curve" title="De Rham curve">de Rham curve</a>, e.g., <a href="Midpoint_displacement" class="mw-redirect" title="Midpoint displacement">midpoint displacement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeitgen2004462–466_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeitgen2004462–466-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, the algorithm may start with a large triangle, then recursively zoom in by dividing it into four smaller <a href="Sierpinski_triangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sierpinski triangle">Sierpinski triangles</a>, then interpolate the height of each point from its nearest neighbors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeitgen2004462–466_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeitgen2004462–466-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The creation of a <a href="Brownian_surface" title="Brownian surface">Brownian surface</a> may be achieved not only by adding noise as new nodes are created but by adding additional noise at multiple levels of the mesh.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeitgen2004462–466_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeitgen2004462–466-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus a <a href="Topographical" class="mw-redirect" title="Topographical">topographical</a> map with varying levels of height can be created using relatively straightforward fractal algorithms. Some typical, easy-to-program fractals used in CGI are the <i>plasma fractal</i> and the more dramatic <i>fault fractal</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Many specific techniques have been researched and developed to produce highly focused computer-generated effects — e.g., the use of specific models to represent the chemical weathering of stones to model erosion and produce an "aged appearance" for a given stone-based surface.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architectural_scenes">Architectural scenes</h2></div>

<p>Modern architects use services from computer graphic firms to create 3-dimensional models for both customers and builders. These computer generated models can be more accurate than traditional drawings. <a href="Architectural_animation" title="Architectural animation">Architectural animation</a> (which provides animated movies of buildings, rather than interactive images) can also be used to see the possible relationship a building will have in relation to the environment and its surrounding buildings. The processing of architectural spaces without the use of paper and pencil tools is now a widely accepted practice with a number of computer-assisted architectural design systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESondermann20088–15_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESondermann20088–15-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Architectural modeling tools allow an architect to visualize a space and perform "walk-throughs" in an interactive manner, thus providing "interactive environments" both at the urban and building levels.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specific applications in architecture not only include the specification of building structures (such as walls and windows) and walk-throughs but the effects of light and how sunlight will affect a specific design at different times of the day.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Architectural modeling tools have now become increasingly internet-based. However, the quality of internet-based systems still lags behind sophisticated in-house modeling systems.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In some applications, computer-generated images are used to "reverse engineer" historical buildings. For instance, a computer-generated reconstruction of the monastery at <a href="Georgenthal" title="Georgenthal">Georgenthal</a> in Germany was derived from the ruins of the monastery, yet provides the viewer with a "look and feel" of what the building would have looked like in its day.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anatomical_models">Anatomical models</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a>, <a href="Visible_Human_Project" title="Visible Human Project">Visible Human Project</a>, <a href="Google_Body" class="mw-redirect" title="Google Body">Google Body</a>, and <a href="Living_Human_Project" title="Living Human Project">Living Human Project</a></div>

<p>Computer generated models used in <a href="Skeletal_animation" title="Skeletal animation">skeletal animation</a> are not always anatomically correct. However, organizations such as the <a href="Scientific_Computing_and_Imaging_Institute" title="Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute">Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute</a> have developed anatomically correct computer-based models. Computer generated anatomical models can be used both for instructional and operational purposes. To date, a large body of artist produced <a href="Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical images</a> continue to be used by medical students, such as images by <a href="Frank_H._Netter" title="Frank H. Netter">Frank H. Netter</a>, e.g. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netterimages.com/image/671.htm">Cardiac images</a>. However, a number of online anatomical models are becoming available.

</p><p>A single patient <a href="X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> is not a computer generated image, even if digitized. However, in applications which involve <a href="CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scans</a> a three-dimensional model is automatically produced from many single-slice x-rays, producing "computer generated image". Applications involving <a href="Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> also bring together a number of "snapshots" (in this case via magnetic pulses) to produce a composite, internal image.

</p><p>In modern medical applications, patient-specific models are constructed in 'computer assisted surgery'. For instance, in total <a href="Knee_replacement" title="Knee replacement">knee replacement</a>, the construction of a detailed patient-specific model can be used to carefully plan the surgery.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These three-dimensional models are usually extracted from multiple <a href="CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scans</a> of the appropriate parts of the patient's own anatomy. Such models can also be used for planning <a href="Aortic_valve" title="Aortic valve">aortic valve</a> implantations, one of the common procedures for treating <a href="Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a>. Given that the shape, diameter, and position of the <a href="Coronary_circulation" title="Coronary circulation">coronary</a> openings can vary greatly from patient to patient, the extraction (from <a href="CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scans</a>) of a model that closely resembles a patient's valve anatomy can be highly beneficial in planning the procedure.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cloth_and_skin_images">Cloth and skin images</h2></div>

<p><a href="Cloth_modeling" title="Cloth modeling">Models of cloth</a> generally fall into three groups:

</p>

<ul><li>The geometric-mechanical structure at <a href="Yarn" title="Yarn">yarn</a> crossing</li>

<li>The mechanics of continuous elastic sheets</li>

<li>The geometric macroscopic features of cloth.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>To date, making the clothing of a digital character automatically fold in a natural way remains a challenge for many animators.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In addition to their use in film, advertising and other modes of public display, computer generated images of clothing are now routinely used by top fashion design firms.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The challenge in rendering <a href="Human_skin" title="Human skin">human skin</a> images involves three levels of realism:

</p>

<ul><li><b>Photo realism</b> in resembling real <a href="Skin" title="Skin">skin</a> at the static level</li>

<li><b>Physical realism</b> in resembling its movements</li>

<li><b>Function realism</b> in resembling its response to actions.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>The finest visible features such as fine <a href="Wrinkle" title="Wrinkle">wrinkles</a> and skin <a href="Sweat_gland" title="Sweat gland">pores</a> are the size of about 100 <a href="Micrometre" title="Micrometre">μm</a> or 0.1 <a href="Millimetre" title="Millimetre">millimetres</a>. Skin can be modeled as a 7-<a href="Dimension" title="Dimension">dimensional</a> <a href="Bidirectional_texture_function" title="Bidirectional texture function">bidirectional texture function</a> (BTF) or a collection of <a href="Bidirectional_scattering_distribution_function" title="Bidirectional scattering distribution function">bidirectional scattering distribution function</a> (BSDF) over the target's surfaces.

</p><p>When animating a texture like hair or fur for a computer generated model, individual base hairs are first created and later duplicated to demonstrate volume.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The initial hairs are often different lengths and colors, to each cover several different sections of a model. This technique was notably used in <a href="Pixar" title="Pixar">Pixar</a>’s <i><a href="Monsters%2C_Inc." title="Monsters, Inc.">Monsters Inc</a></i> (2001) for the character Sulley, who had approximately 1,000 initial hairs generated that were later duplicated 2,800 times.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quantity of duplications can range from thousands to millions, depending on the level of detail sought after.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interactive_simulation_and_visualization">Interactive simulation and visualization</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Interactive_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Interactive visualization">Interactive visualization</a></div>

<p>Interactive visualization is the rendering of data that may vary dynamically and allowing a user to view the data from multiple perspectives. The applications areas may vary significantly, ranging from the visualization of the flow patterns in <a href="Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a> to specific <a href="Computer_aided_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer aided design">computer aided design</a> applications.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The data rendered may correspond to specific visual scenes that change as the user interacts with the system — e.g. simulators, such as <a href="Flight_simulator" title="Flight simulator">flight simulators</a>, make extensive use of CGI techniques for representing the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Weiskopf_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weiskopf-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>At the abstract level, an interactive visualization process involves a "data pipeline" in which the raw data is managed and filtered to a form that makes it suitable for rendering. This is often called the <b>"visualization data"</b>. The visualization data is then mapped to a "visualization representation" that can be fed to a rendering system. This is usually called a <b>"renderable representation"</b>. This representation is then rendered as a displayable image.<sup id="cite_ref-Weiskopf_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weiskopf-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the user interacts with the system (e.g. by using joystick controls to change their position within the virtual world) the raw data is fed through the pipeline to create a new rendered image, often making real-time computational efficiency a key consideration in such applications.<sup id="cite_ref-Weiskopf_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weiskopf-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Computer_animation">Computer animation</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Computer animation</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="History_of_computer_animation" title="History of computer animation">History of computer animation</a></div>

<p>While computer-generated images of landscapes may be static, <i><a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">computer animation</a></i> only applies to dynamic images that resemble a movie. However, in general, the term computer animation refers to dynamic images that do not allow user interaction, and the term <a href="Virtual_world" title="Virtual world">virtual world</a> is used for the interactive animated environments.

</p><p>Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to the art of <a href="Stop_motion" title="Stop motion">stop motion</a> animation of 3D models and frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations. Computer generated animations are more controllable than other more physically based processes, such as constructing <a href="Miniature_effect" title="Miniature effect">miniatures</a> for effects shots or hiring <a href="Extra_(drama)" class="mw-redirect" title="Extra (drama)">extras</a> for crowd scenes, and because it allows the creation of images that would not be feasible using any other technology. It can also allow a single graphic artist to produce such content without the use of actors, expensive set pieces, or props.

</p><p>To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the <a href="Computer_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer display">computer screen</a> and repeatedly replaced by a new image which is similar to the previous image, but advanced slightly in the time domain (usually at a rate of 24 or 30 frames/second). This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with <a href="Television" title="Television">television</a> and <a href="Film" title="Film">motion pictures</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Text-to-image_models">Text-to-image models</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Text-to-image_model" title="Text-to-image model">Text-to-image model</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Text-to-image_model&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<p>A <a href="Text-to-image_model" title="Text-to-image model">text-to-image model</a> is a <a href="Machine_learning_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine learning model">machine learning model</a> which takes an input <a href="Natural_language_prompt" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural language prompt">natural language prompt</a> and produces an image matching that description.

</p><p>Text-to-image models began to be developed in the mid-2010s during the beginnings of the <a href="AI_boom" title="AI boom">AI boom</a>, as a result of advances in <a href="Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">deep neural networks</a>. In 2022, the output of state-of-the-art text-to-image models—such as OpenAI's <a href="DALL-E_2" class="mw-redirect" title="DALL-E 2">DALL-E 2</a>, <a href="Google_Brain" title="Google Brain">Google Brain</a>'s <a href="Imagen_(text-to-image_model)" title="Imagen (text-to-image model)">Imagen</a>, Stability AI's <a href="Stable_Diffusion" title="Stable Diffusion">Stable Diffusion</a>, and <a href="Midjourney" title="Midjourney">Midjourney</a>—began to be considered to approach the quality of <a href="Photograph" title="Photograph">real photographs</a> and human-drawn <a href="Folk_art" title="Folk art">art</a>.

</p>

Text-to-image models are generally <a href="Latent_diffusion_model" title="Latent diffusion model">latent diffusion models</a>, which combine a <a href="Language_model" title="Language model">language model</a>, which transforms the input text into a <a href="Latent_variable_model" title="Latent variable model">latent representation</a>, and a <a href="Generative_model" title="Generative model">generative image model</a>, which produces an image conditioned on that representation. The most effective models have generally been trained on massive amounts of image and text data <a href="Web_scraping" title="Web scraping">scraped from the web</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-imagen-verge_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-imagen-verge-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Virtual_worlds">Virtual worlds</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Virtual_world" title="Virtual world">Virtual world</a></div>

<p>A virtual world is an <a href="Agent-based_model" title="Agent-based model">agent-based</a> and <a href="Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">simulated environment</a> allowing users to interact with artificially animated characters (e.g <a href="Software_agent" title="Software agent">software agent</a>) or with other physical users, through the use of <a href="Avatar_(computing)" title="Avatar (computing)">avatars</a>. Virtual worlds are intended for its <a href="User_(computing)" title="User (computing)">users</a> to inhabit and interact, and the term today has become largely synonymous with interactive 3D virtual environments, where the users take the form of <a href="Avatar_(computing)" title="Avatar (computing)">avatars</a> visible to others graphically.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These avatars are usually depicted as textual, two-dimensional, or <a href="3D_computer_graphics" title="3D computer graphics">three-dimensional graphical</a> representations, although other forms are possible<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBioccaLevy199540–44_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBioccaLevy199540–44-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (auditory<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBegault1994212_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBegault1994212-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and touch sensations for example). Some, but not all, virtual worlds allow for multiple users.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_courtrooms">In courtrooms</h2></div>

<p>Computer-generated imagery has been used in courtrooms, primarily since the early 2000s. However, some experts have argued that it is prejudicial. They are used to help judges or the jury to better visualize the sequence of events, evidence or hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, a 1997 study showed that people are poor intuitive physicists and easily influenced by computer generated images.<sup id="cite_ref-Kassin_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kassin-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus it is important that jurors and other legal decision-makers be made aware that such exhibits are merely a representation of one potential sequence of events.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Broadcast_and_live_events">Broadcast and live events</h2></div>

<p>Weather visualizations were the first application of CGI in television. One of the first companies to offer computer systems for generating weather graphics was <a href="ColorGraphics_Weather_Systems" title="ColorGraphics Weather Systems">ColorGraphics Weather Systems</a> in 1979 with the "LiveLine", based around an <a href="Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a> computer, with later models from ColorGraphics using <a href="Cromemco" title="Cromemco">Cromemco</a> computers fitted with their <a href="Cromemco_Dazzler" title="Cromemco Dazzler">Dazzler</a> video graphics card.

</p><p>It has now become common in weather casting to display full motion video of images captured in real-time from multiple cameras and other imaging devices. Coupled with 3D graphics symbols and mapped to a common virtual geospatial model, these animated visualizations constitute the first true application of CGI to TV.

</p><p>CGI has become common in sports telecasting. Sports and entertainment venues are provided with see-through and overlay content through tracked camera feeds for enhanced viewing by the audience. Examples include the yellow "<a href="First_down" class="mw-redirect" title="First down">first down</a>" line seen in television broadcasts of <a href="American_football" title="American football">American football</a> games showing the line the offensive team must cross to receive a first down. CGI is also used in association with football and other sporting events to show commercial advertisements overlaid onto the view of the playing area. Sections of <a href="Rugby_football" title="Rugby football">rugby</a> fields and <a href="Cricket" title="Cricket">cricket</a> pitches also display sponsored images. Swimming telecasts often add a line across the lanes to indicate the position of the current record holder as a race proceeds to allow viewers to compare the current race to the best performance. Other examples include hockey puck tracking and annotations of racing car performance<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and snooker ball trajectories.<sup id="cite_ref-recentadvances_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-recentadvances-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes CGI on TV with correct alignment to the real world has been referred to as <a href="Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">augmented reality</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Motion_capture">Motion capture</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Motion_capture" title="Motion capture">Motion capture</a></div>

<p>Computer-generated imagery is often used in conjunction with <a href="Motion_capture" title="Motion capture">motion capture</a> to better cover the faults that come with CGI and animation. Computer-generated imagery is limited in its practical application by how realistic it can look. Unrealistic, or badly managed computer-generated imagery can result in the <a href="Uncanny_valley" title="Uncanny valley">uncanny valley</a> effect.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This effect refers to the human ability to recognize things that look eerily like humans, but are slightly off. Such ability is a fault with normal computer-generated imagery which, due to the complex anatomy of the human body, can often fail to replicate it perfectly. Artists can use motion capture to get footage of a human performing an action and then replicate it perfectly with computer-generated imagery so that it looks normal.

</p><p>In many instances, motion capture is needed to accurately mimic an actor's full body movements while slightly changing their appearance with de-aging. <a href="De-aging_in_film_and_television" title="De-aging in film and television">De-aging</a> is a visual effect used to alter the appearance of an actor, often through facial scanning technologies, <a href="Motion_capture" title="Motion capture">motion capture</a>, and photo references. It is commonly used for flashback scenes and cameos to have an actor appear younger. <a href="Marvel_Studios" title="Marvel Studios">Marvel</a>’s <i><a href="X-Men%3A_The_Last_Stand" title="X-Men: The Last Stand">X-Men: The Last Stand</a></i> was the first film to publicly incorporate de-aging, which was used on actors <a href="Patrick_Stewart" title="Patrick Stewart">Patrick Stewart</a> and <a href="Ian_McKellen" title="Ian McKellen">Ian Mckellen</a> for flashback scenes featuring their characters at a younger age.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The visual effects were done by the company <a href="Lola_Visual_Effects" title="Lola Visual Effects">Lola VFX</a>, and used photos taken of the actors at a younger age as references to later smooth out the wrinkles on their face with use of CGI. Overtime, de-aging technologies have advanced, with films such as <i><a href="Here_(2024_film)" title="Here (2024 film)">Here</a></i> (2024), portraying actors at younger ages through the use of digital AI techniques, scanning millions of facial features and incorporating a number of them onto actors’ faces to alter their appearance.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The lack of anatomically correct digital models contributes to the necessity of motion capture as it is used with computer-generated imagery. Because computer-generated imagery reflects only the outside, or skin, of the object being rendered, it fails to capture the infinitesimally small interactions between interlocking muscle groups used in <a href="Fine_motor_skill" title="Fine motor skill">fine motor skills</a> like speaking. The constant motion of the face as it makes sounds with shaped lips and tongue movement, along with the facial expressions that go along with speaking are difficult to replicate by hand.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Motion capture can catch the underlying movement of facial muscles and better replicate the visual that goes along with the audio.

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="3D_modeling" title="3D modeling">3D modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Cinema_Research_Corporation" title="Cinema Research Corporation">Cinema Research Corporation</a></li>

<li><a href="Cel_shading" title="Cel shading">Cel shading</a></li>

<li><a href="Anime_Studio" class="mw-redirect" title="Anime Studio">Anime Studio</a></li>

<li><a href="Animation_database" title="Animation database">Animation database</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_computer-animated_films" title="List of computer-animated films">List of computer-animated films</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_image" title="Digital image">Digital image</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_rendering" title="Parallel rendering">Parallel rendering</a></li>

<li><a href="Photoshop" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoshop">Photoshop</a> is the industry standard commercial digital photo editing tool.</li>

<li><a href="GIMP" title="GIMP">GIMP</a>, a <a href="FOSS" class="mw-redirect" title="FOSS">FOSS</a> digital photo editing application.</li>

<li><a href="Poser_(software)" title="Poser (software)">Poser</a> DIY CGI optimized for soft models</li>

<li><a href="Random_number_generation" title="Random number generation">Random number generation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ray_tracing_(graphics)" title="Ray tracing (graphics)">Ray tracing (graphics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Real-time_computer_graphics" title="Real-time computer graphics">Real-time computer graphics</a></li>

<li><a href="Shader" title="Shader">Shader</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_actor" title="Virtual actor">Virtual human</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_studio" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual studio">Virtual studio</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_Physiological_Human" title="Virtual Physiological Human">Virtual Physiological Human</a></li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFOzturk2023" class="citation web cs1">Ozturk, Selen (March 15, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brightlightsfilm.com/vicious-circle-john-whitney-and-the-military-origins-of-early-cgi/#:~:text=Alfred%20Hitchcock's%20Vertigo%20(1958)%20was,film%20to%20use%20computer%20animation.">"Vicious Circle: John Whitney and the Military Origins of Early CGI"</a>. <i>Bright Lights Film Journal</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 11,</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSuminski,_Leonard_and1980" class="citation journal cs1">Suminski, Leonard and, Hulin, Paul (September 26, 1980). "Computer Generated Imagery Current Technology". <i>U.S. Army Project Manager for Training Devices</i>: <span class="nowrap">14–</span>18.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite journal}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFYan1985" class="citation journal cs1">Yan, Johnson (August 1985). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4056245">"Advances in Computer-Generated Imagery for Flight Simulation"</a></span>. <i>IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications</i>. <b>5</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">37–</span>51. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMCG.1985.276213">10.1109/MCG.1985.276213</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15309937">15309937</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeitgen2004462–466-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeitgen2004462–466_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeitgen2004462–466_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeitgen2004462–466_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeitgen2004">Peitgen 2004</a>, pp. 462–466.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Game programming gems 2</i> by Mark A. DeLoura 2001 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-58450-054-9</bdi> page 240 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1-NfBElV97IC&dq=fractal+landscape&pg=PA239">[1]</a></span>

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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Digital modeling of material appearance</i> by <a href="Julie_Dorsey" title="Julie Dorsey">Julie Dorsey</a>, <a href="Holly_Rushmeier" title="Holly Rushmeier">Holly Rushmeier</a>, François X. Sillion 2007 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-12-221181-2</bdi> page 217</span>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESondermann20088–15-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESondermann20088–15_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSondermann2008">Sondermann 2008</a>, pp. 8–15.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Interactive environments with open-source software: 3D walkthroughs</i> by Wolfgang Höhl, Wolfgang Höhl, 2008, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-211-79169-8</bdi>, pp. 24–29.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://garagefarm.net/blog/light-the-art-of-exposure">"Light: The art of exposure"</a>. <i>GarageFarm</i>. 2020-11-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-11-12</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Advances in Computer and Information Sciences and Engineering</i> by Tarek Sobh 2008 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-4020-8740-3</bdi> pages 136-139</span>

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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Encyclopedia of Multimedia Technology and Networking, Volume 1</i> by Margherita Pagani 2005 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-59140-561-0</bdi> page 1027</span>

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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Interac storytelling: First Joint International Conference</i> by Ulrike Spierling, Nicolas Szilas 2008 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-540-89424-1</bdi> pages 114-118</span>

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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Total Knee Arthroplasty</i> by Johan Bellemans, Michael D. Ries, Jan M.K. Victor 2005 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-540-20242-0</bdi> pages 241-245</span>

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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">I. Waechter et al. <i>Patient Specific Models for Minimally Invasive Aortic Valve Implantation</i> in <i><a href="Medical_Image_Computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Image Computing">Medical Image Computing</a> and Computer-Assisted Intervention -- MICCAI 2010</i> edited by Tianzi Jiang, 2010 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-642-15704-1</bdi> pages 526-560</span>

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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cloth modeling and animation</i> by Donald House, David E. Breen 2000 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-56881-090-3</bdi> page 20</span>

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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Film and photography</i> by Ian Graham 2003 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-237-52626-3</bdi> page 21</span>

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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Handbook of Virtual Humans</i> by Nadia Magnenat-Thalmann and Daniel Thalmann, 2004 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-470-02316-3</bdi> pages 353-370</span>

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<li id="cite_note-:1-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.moma.org/audio/playlist/192/2569#:~:text=The%20artists%20debated%20llama%20wool,drawing%20of%20six%20standing%20monsters">"Sullivan fur pattern studies Maquette by Jerome Ranft. Monsters Inc., 2001 | MoMA"</a>. <i>The Museum of Modern Art</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-04-24</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Mathematical optimization in computer graphics and vision</i> by Luiz Velho, Paulo Cezar Pinto Carvalho 2008 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-12-715951-7</bdi> page 177</span>

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<li id="cite_note-Weiskopf-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weiskopf_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weiskopf_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weiskopf_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>GPU-based interactive visualization techniques</i> by Daniel Weiskopf 2006 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-540-33262-6</bdi> pages 1-8</span>

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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cook, A.D. (2009). A case study of the manifestations and significance of social presence in a multi-user virtual environment. MEd Thesis. Available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library2.usask.ca/theses/available/etd-09102009-012757/">online</a></span>

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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/computer-generated-images-influence-trial-results-19734">Computer-generated images influence trial results</a> The Conversation, 31 October 2013</span>

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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archived at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/1jQUkqqnZIc">Ghostarchive</a> and the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210714184600/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1jQUkqqnZIc">Wayback Machine</a>: <cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1jQUkqqnZIc"><i>Arti AR highlights at SRX -- the first sports augmented reality live from a moving car!</i></a>, 14 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-07-14</span></span></cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-recentadvances-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-recentadvances_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Azuma%2C_Ronald" class="mw-redirect" title="Azuma, Ronald">Azuma, Ronald</a>; Balliot, Yohan; Behringer, Reinhold; Feiner, Steven; Julier, Simon; MacIntyre, Blair. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cc.gatech.edu/~blair/papers/ARsurveyCGA.pdf">Recent Advances in Augmented Reality</a> <i>Computers & Graphics</i>, November 2001.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMarlow,_Chris2012" class="citation news cs1">Marlow, Chris (27 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dmwmedia.com/news/2012/04/27/hey-hockey-puck-nhl-preplay-adds-a-second-screen-experience-to-live-games">"Hey, hockey puck! NHL PrePlay adds a second-screen experience to live games"</a>. <i>digitalmediawire</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPalomäkiKunnariDrosinouKoverola2018" class="citation journal cs1">Palomäki, Jussi; Kunnari, Anton; Drosinou, Marianna; Koverola, Mika; Lehtonen, Noora; Halonen, Juho; Repo, Marko; Laakasuo, Michael (2018-11-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6260244">"Evaluating the replicability of the uncanny valley effect"</a>. <i>Heliyon</i>. <b>4</b> (11): e00939. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Heliy...400939P">2018Heliy...400939P</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.heliyon.2018.e00939">10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00939</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2405-8440">2405-8440</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6260244">6260244</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30519654">30519654</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cgw.com/Publications/CGW/2006/Volume-29-Issue-6-June-2006-/Face-Off.aspx">"Face Off"</a>. <i>Computer Graphics World</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-04-24</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGiardina2023" class="citation web cs1">Giardina, Carolyn (2023-01-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/metaphysic-ai-tom-hanks-robin-wright-deaged-robert-zemeckis-caa-1235313318/">"Tom Hanks, Robin Wright to Be De-aged in Robert Zemeckis' New Movie Using Metaphysic AI Tool"</a>. <i>The Hollywood Reporter</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-04-24</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPelachaudSteedmanBadler1991" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Catherine_Pelachaud" title="Catherine Pelachaud">Pelachaud, Catherine</a>; Steedman, Mark; Badler, Norman (1991-06-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.upenn.edu/hms/69">"Linguistic Issues in Facial Animation"</a>. <i>Center for Human Modeling and Simulation</i> (69).</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBegault1994" class="citation book cs1">Begault, Durand R. (1994). <i>3-D Sound for Virtual Reality and Multimedia</i>. AP Professional. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-1208-4735-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBioccaLevy1995" class="citation book cs1">Biocca, Frank; Levy, Mark R. (1995). <i>Communication in the Age of Virtual Reality</i>. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8058-1549-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPeitgen2004" class="citation book cs1">Peitgen, Heinz-Otto; Jürgens, Hartmut; Saupe, Dietmar (2004). <i>Chaos and Fractals: New Frontiers of Science</i>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-387-20229-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSondermann2008" class="citation book cs1">Sondermann, Horst (2008). <i>Light Shadow Space: Architectural Rendering with Cinema 4D</i>. Vienna: Springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-211-48761-7</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Computer-generated_images" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Computer-generated images">Computer-generated images</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160818194224/http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lessons.html">A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation</a> – a course page at <a href="Ohio_State_University" title="Ohio State University">Ohio State University</a> that includes all the course materials and extensive supplementary materials (videos, articles, links).</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cg101.com">CG101: A Computer Graphics Industry Reference</a> <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>073570046X</bdi> Unique and personal histories of early computer graphics production, plus a comprehensive foundation of the industry for all reading levels.</li>

<li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.02/fxgods.html">F/X Gods</a></i>, by Anne Thompson, Wired, February 2005.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/4025541.stm">"History Gets A Computer Graphics Make-Over"</a> Tayfun King, <i>Click</i>, BBC World News (2004-11-19)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_gallery.html">NIH Visible Human Gallery</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="3D_computer_graphics_software609" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="3D_computer_graphics_software609" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="3D_computer_graphics" title="3D computer graphics">3D computer graphics</a> software</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="3D_Movie_Maker" title="3D Movie Maker">3D Movie Maker</a></li>

<li><a href="Blender_(software)" title="Blender (software)">Blender</a></li>

<li><a href="CloudCompare" title="CloudCompare">CloudCompare</a></li>

<li><a href="FreeCAD" title="FreeCAD">FreeCAD</a></li>

<li><a href="GigaMesh_Software_Framework" title="GigaMesh Software Framework">GigaMesh Software Framework</a></li>

<li><a href="LuxCoreRender" title="LuxCoreRender">LuxCoreRender</a></li>

<li><a href="MakeHuman" title="MakeHuman">MakeHuman</a></li>

<li><a href="MeshLab" title="MeshLab">MeshLab</a></li>

<li><a href="MoonRay" title="MoonRay">MoonRay</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenFX_(software)" title="OpenFX (software)">OpenFX</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenSCAD" title="OpenSCAD">OpenSCAD</a></li>

<li><a href="Point_Cloud_Library" title="Point Cloud Library">Point Cloud Library</a></li>

<li><a href="Seamless3d" title="Seamless3d">Seamless3d</a></li>

<li><a href="Sweet_Home_3D" title="Sweet Home 3D">Sweet Home 3D</a></li>

<li><a href="Wings_3D" title="Wings 3D">Wings 3D</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Closed-source" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed-source">Closed-source</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Arnold_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arnold (software)">Arnold</a></li>

<li><a href="Autodesk_3ds_Max" title="Autodesk 3ds Max">Autodesk 3ds Max</a></li>

<li><a href="Autodesk_Alias" title="Autodesk Alias">Autodesk Alias</a></li>

<li><a href="Autodesk_Maya" title="Autodesk Maya">Autodesk Maya</a></li>

<li><a href="Autodesk_Mudbox" title="Autodesk Mudbox">Autodesk Mudbox</a></li>

<li><a href="Blackmagic_Fusion" title="Blackmagic Fusion">Blackmagic Fusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Bryce_(software)" title="Bryce (software)">Bryce</a></li>

<li><a href="Carrara_(software)" title="Carrara (software)">Carrara</a></li>

<li><a href="Cinema_4D" title="Cinema 4D">Cinema 4D</a></li>

<li><a href="Clara.io" title="Clara.io">Clara.io</a></li>

<li><a href="Daz_Studio" title="Daz Studio">Daz Studio</a></li>

<li><a href="Electric_Image_Animation_System" title="Electric Image Animation System">Electric Image Animation System</a></li>

<li><a href="Golaem_Crowd" title="Golaem Crowd">Golaem Crowd</a></li>

<li><a href="Hexagon_(software)" title="Hexagon (software)">Hexagon</a></li>

<li><a href="Houdini_(software)" title="Houdini (software)">Houdini</a></li>

<li><a href="Kerkythea" title="Kerkythea">Kerkythea</a></li>

<li><a href="LightWave_3D" title="LightWave 3D">LightWave 3D</a></li>

<li><a href="MASSIVE_(software)" title="MASSIVE (software)">MASSIVE</a></li>

<li><a href="Oculus_Medium" title="Oculus Medium">Medium by Adobe</a></li>

<li><a href="Messiah_(software)" title="Messiah (software)">Messiah</a></li>

<li><a href="Octane_Render" title="Octane Render">Octane Render</a></li>

<li><a href="Paint_3D" title="Paint 3D">Paint 3D</a></li>

<li><a href="Presto_(animation_software)" title="Presto (animation software)">Pixar Presto</a></li>

<li><a href="Pixar_RenderMan" title="Pixar RenderMan">Pixar RenderMan</a></li>

<li><a href="Poser_(software)" title="Poser (software)">Poser</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhinoceros_3D" title="Rhinoceros 3D">Rhinoceros 3D</a></li>

<li><a href="Shade_3D" title="Shade 3D">Shade 3D</a></li>

<li><a href="Shark_3D" title="Shark 3D">Shark 3D</a></li>

<li><a href="SketchUp" title="SketchUp">SketchUp</a></li>

<li><a href="Source_Filmmaker" title="Source Filmmaker">Source Filmmaker</a></li>

<li><a href="Strata_3D" title="Strata 3D">Strata 3D</a></li>

<li><a href="Terragen" title="Terragen">Terragen</a></li>

<li><a href="ZBrush" title="ZBrush">ZBrush</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amapi" title="Amapi">Amapi</a></li>

<li><a href="Autodesk_Softimage" title="Autodesk Softimage">Autodesk Softimage</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyber_Studio" title="Cyber Studio">Cyber Studio CAD-3D</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamation_(software)" title="Dynamation (software)">Dynamation</a></li>

<li><a href="Imagine_(3D_modeling_software)" title="Imagine (3D modeling software)">Imagine</a></li>

<li><a href="N-World" title="N-World">N-World</a></li>

<li><a href="PowerAnimator" title="PowerAnimator">PowerAnimator</a></li>

<li><a href="Sculpt_3D" title="Sculpt 3D">Sculpt 3D</a></li>

<li><a href="Softimage_3D" title="Softimage 3D">Softimage 3D</a></li>

<li><a href="StrataVision_3D" title="StrataVision 3D">StrataVision 3D</a></li>

<li><a href="Swift_3D" title="Swift 3D">Swift 3D</a></li>

<li><a href="TrueSpace" title="TrueSpace">TrueSpace</a></li>

<li><a href="TurboSilver" title="TurboSilver">TurboSilver</a></li>

<li><a href="VistaPro" title="VistaPro">VistaPro</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Core technologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="HOOPS_3D_Graphics_System" class="mw-redirect" title="HOOPS 3D Graphics System">HOOPS 3D</a></li>

<li><a href="KernelCAD" class="mw-redirect" title="KernelCAD">KernelCAD</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Cascade_Technology" title="Open Cascade Technology">Open Cascade Technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Parasolid" title="Parasolid">Parasolid</a></li>

<li><a href="Romulus_(modelling_kernel)" title="Romulus (modelling kernel)">Romulus</a></li>

<li><a href="ShapeManager" title="ShapeManager">ShapeManager</a></li>

<li><a href="Teigha" class="mw-redirect" title="Teigha">Teigha</a></li>

<li><a href="IntelliCAD" title="IntelliCAD">IntelliCAD</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"></span></span> <a href="Comparison_of_3D_computer_graphics_software" title="Comparison of 3D computer graphics software">Comparison</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_3D_modeling_software" title="List of 3D modeling software">3D modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_3D_rendering_software" title="List of 3D rendering software">3D rendering</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fractal_software217" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fractal_software217" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Fractal-generating_software" title="Fractal-generating software">Fractal software</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphics_software" title="Graphics software">Graphics software</a></li>

<li><a href="Fractal_art" title="Fractal art">Fractal art</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Open-source</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Apophysis_(software)" title="Apophysis (software)">Apophysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Blender_(software)" title="Blender (software)">Blender</a></li>

<li><a href="Fractint" title="Fractint">Fractint</a></li>

<li>Kalles Fraktaler</li>

<li><a href="MilkDrop" title="MilkDrop">MilkDrop</a></li>

<li><a href="Sterling_(program)" title="Sterling (program)">Sterling</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">GNU</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Electric_Sheep" title="Electric Sheep">Electric Sheep</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenPlaG" title="OpenPlaG">openPlaG</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freeware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>IFStile</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Retail</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Cross-platform</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bryce_(software)" title="Bryce (software)">Bryce</a></li>

<li><a href="Maple_(software)" title="Maple (software)">Maple</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultra_Fractal" title="Ultra Fractal">Ultra Fractal</a></li>

<li><a href="Wolfram_Mathematica" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolfram Mathematica">Wolfram Mathematica</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Windows only</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="VisSim" title="VisSim">VisSim</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Scenery_generator" title="Scenery generator">Scenery generator</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="MojoWorld_Generator" title="MojoWorld Generator">MojoWorld Generator</a></li>

<li><a href="Picogen" title="Picogen">Picogen</a></li>

<li><a href="Terragen" title="Terragen">Terragen</a></li>

<li><a href="VistaPro" title="VistaPro">VistaPro</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Found objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Burning_Ship_fractal" title="Burning Ship fractal">Burning Ship fractal</a></li>

<li><a href="Jerusalem_cube" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerusalem cube">Jerusalem cube</a></li>

<li><a href="Julia_set" title="Julia set">Julia set</a></li>

<li><a href="Mandelbox" title="Mandelbox">Mandelbox</a></li>

<li><a href="Mandelbrot_set" title="Mandelbrot set">Mandelbrot set</a></li>

<li><a href="Mandelbulb" title="Mandelbulb">Mandelbulb</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Fractal_compression" title="Fractal compression">Fractal compression</a></li>

<li><a href="Fractal_landscape" title="Fractal landscape">Fractal landscape</a></li>

<li><a href="Fractal_flame" title="Fractal flame">Fractal flame</a></li>

<li><a href="Iterated_function_system" title="Iterated function system">Iterated function system</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_visualization" title="Mathematical visualization">Mathematical visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbit_trap" title="Orbit trap">Orbit trap</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li>Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Unix–Windows_interoperability287" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Unix–Windows_interoperability287" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a>–<a href="Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a> interoperability</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Unix-like" title="Unix-like">Unix-like</a> subsystems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cygwin" title="Cygwin">Cygwin</a></li>

<li><a href="Microsoft_POSIX_subsystem" title="Microsoft POSIX subsystem">Microsoft POSIX subsystem</a></li>

<li><a href="Windows_Services_for_UNIX" title="Windows Services for UNIX">Windows Services for UNIX</a> (<a href="Interix" title="Interix">Interix</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Windows_Subsystem_for_Linux#WSL_1" title="Windows Subsystem for Linux">Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL 1)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development environments and shells</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="DJGPP" title="DJGPP">DJGPP</a></li>

<li><a href="Hamilton_C_shell" title="Hamilton C shell">Hamilton C shell</a></li>

<li><a href="MinGW" title="MinGW">MinGW</a> (<a href="MSYS" class="mw-redirect" title="MSYS">MSYS</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Mingw-w64" title="Mingw-w64">Mingw-w64</a> (<a href="MSYS2" class="mw-redirect" title="MSYS2">MSYS2</a>)</li>

<li><a href="MKS_Toolkit" title="MKS Toolkit">MKS Toolkit</a></li>

<li><a href="PowerShell" title="PowerShell">PowerShell</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ports of Unix-like utilities for Windows</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="GnuWin32" title="GnuWin32">GnuWin32</a></li>

<li><a href="UnxUtils" title="UnxUtils">UnxUtils</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Windows runtime environments for <a href="*nix" class="mw-redirect" title="*nix">*nix</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Willows_Toolkit_for_UNIX" class="mw-redirect" title="Willows Toolkit for UNIX">Willows Toolkit for UNIX</a></li>

<li><a href="Wine_(software)" title="Wine (software)">Wine</a> (<a href="WINE%40Etersoft" title="WINE@Etersoft">WINE@Etersoft</a>, <a href="Cedega_(software)" title="Cedega (software)">Cedega</a>, <a href="CrossOver_(software)" title="CrossOver (software)">CrossOver</a>, <a href="Darwine" class="mw-redirect" title="Darwine">Darwine</a>, <a href="Proton_(software)" title="Proton (software)">Proton</a>)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Comparison_of_platform_virtualization_software" title="Comparison of platform virtualization software">Platform virtualization software</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cooperative_Linux" title="Cooperative Linux">Cooperative Linux</a> (<a href="TopologiLinux" title="TopologiLinux">TopologiLinux</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Merge_(software)" title="Merge (software)">Merge</a></li>

<li><a href="Windows_Subsystem_for_Linux#WSL_2" title="Windows Subsystem for Linux">Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL 2)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Captive_NTFS" title="Captive NTFS">Captive NTFS</a></li>

<li><a href="NDISwrapper" title="NDISwrapper">NDISwrapper</a></li>

<li><a href="Windows_Interface_Source_Environment" title="Windows Interface Source Environment">Windows Interface Source Environment</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Cinematic_techniques90" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Cinematic_techniques90" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Cinematic_techniques" title="Cinematic techniques">Cinematic techniques</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em"><a href="Stage_lighting" title="Stage lighting">Lighting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Background_light" title="Background light">Background</a></li>

<li><a href="Cameo_lighting" title="Cameo lighting">Cameo</a></li>

<li><a href="Stage_lighting_instrument#Floodlights" title="Stage lighting instrument">Flood</a></li>

<li><a href="Lens_flare" title="Lens flare">Lens flare</a></li>

<li><a href="Rembrandt_lighting" title="Rembrandt lighting">Rembrandt</a></li>

<li><a href="Stage_lighting" title="Stage lighting">Stage</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em"><a href="Sound" title="Sound">Sound</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cinematic_techniques#Diegetic_sound" title="Cinematic techniques">Diegetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Cinematic_techniques#Non-diegetic_sound" title="Cinematic techniques">Non-diegetic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Narrative" title="Narrative">Narration</a></li>

<li><a href="Film_score" title="Film score">Film score</a></li>

<li><a href="Sound_effect" title="Sound effect">Sound effects</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em"><a href="Shot_(filmmaking)" title="Shot (filmmaking)">Shooting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Field size</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="American_shot" title="American shot">American</a></li>

<li><a href="Medium_shot" title="Medium shot">Medium</a></li>

<li><a href="Close-up" title="Close-up">Close-up</a></li>

<li><a href="Italian_shot" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian shot">Italian</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Camera placement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Perspective_(graphical)" title="Perspective (graphical)">Perspective</a></li>

<li><a href="Over-the-shoulder_shot" title="Over-the-shoulder shot">Over-the-shoulder</a></li>

<li><a href="Point_of_view_shot" class="mw-redirect" title="Point of view shot">Point-of-view <span style="font-size: 85%;">(POV)</span></a></li>

<li><a href="Shot/reverse_shot" title="Shot/reverse shot">Reverse</a></li>

<li><a href="Trunk_shot" title="Trunk shot">Trunk</a></li>

<li><a href="Single-camera_setup" title="Single-camera setup">Single</a> / <a href="Multiple-camera_setup" title="Multiple-camera setup">multiple-camera setup</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Camera_angle" title="Camera angle">Camera angle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Aerial_shot" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerial shot">Aerial</a></li>

<li><a href="High-angle_shot" title="High-angle shot">High-angle</a></li>

<li><a href="Crane_shot" title="Crane shot">Crane shot</a></li>

<li><a href="Low-angle_shot" title="Low-angle shot">Low-angle</a></li>

<li><a href="Dutch_angle" title="Dutch angle">Dutch angle</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Camera movement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Unchained_camera_technique" title="Unchained camera technique">Unchained camera technique</a></li>

<li><a href="Tilt_(camera)" title="Tilt (camera)">Tilting</a></li>

<li><a href="Panning_(camera)" title="Panning (camera)">Panning</a>

<li><a href="Shaky_camera" title="Shaky camera">Shaky</a></li>

<li><a href="Tracking_shot" title="Tracking shot">Tracking</a></li>

<li><a href="Camera_dolly" title="Camera dolly">Dolly</a></li>

<li><a href="Steadicam" title="Steadicam">Steadicam</a></li>

<li><a href="SnorriCam" title="SnorriCam">SnorriCam</a></li>

<li><a href="Follow_shot" title="Follow shot">Follow</a></li>

<li><a href="Dolly_zoom" title="Dolly zoom">Dolly zoom</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Lens effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Focus_(optics)" title="Focus (optics)">Focus</a>

<ul><li><a href="Racking_focus" class="mw-redirect" title="Racking focus">Racking</a></li>

<li><a href="Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">Depth of field</a></li>

<li><a href="Shallow_focus" title="Shallow focus">Shallow</a></li>

<li><a href="Zooming_(filmmaking)" title="Zooming (filmmaking)">Zooming</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Establishing_shot" title="Establishing shot">Establishing shot</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_shot" title="Master shot">Master shot</a></li>

<li><a href="Freeze-frame_shot" title="Freeze-frame shot">Freeze-frame shot</a></li>

<li><a href="Insert_(filmmaking)" title="Insert (filmmaking)">Insert</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul></ul></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Special_effects104" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Special_effect" title="Special effect">Special effects</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:5.0em"><a href="Practical_effect" title="Practical effect">Practical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Aerial_rigging" title="Aerial rigging">Aerial rigging</a> (<a href="Wire-flying" class="mw-redirect" title="Wire-flying">wire-flying</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Air_bladder_effect" title="Air bladder effect">Air bladder effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Animatronics" title="Animatronics">Animatronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Bullet_hit_squib" title="Bullet hit squib">Bullet hit squib</a></li>

<li><a href="Costumed_character" class="mw-redirect" title="Costumed character">Costumed character</a></li>

<li><a href="Creature_suit" title="Creature suit">Creature suit</a></li>

<li><a href="Dead-character_costume" title="Dead-character costume">Dead-character costume</a></li>

<li><a href="Kitbashing" title="Kitbashing">Kitbashing</a></li>

<li><a href="Miniature_effect" title="Miniature effect">Miniature effect</a> (<a href="Hanging_miniature" title="Hanging miniature">hanging</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Prosthetic_makeup" title="Prosthetic makeup">Prosthetic makeup</a></li>

<li><a href="Puppetry" title="Puppetry">Puppetry</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyrotechnics" title="Pyrotechnics">Pyrotechnics</a></li>

<li><a href="Rubber_mask" title="Rubber mask">Rubber mask</a></li>

<li><a href="Matte_painting" title="Matte painting">Matte painting</a></li>

<li><a href="Sugar_glass" title="Sugar glass">Sugar glass</a></li>

<li><a href="Theatrical_blood" title="Theatrical blood">Theatrical blood</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:5.0em"><a href="In-camera_effect" title="In-camera effect">In-camera</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bipack" title="Bipack">Bipacks</a></li>

<li><a href="Bullet_time" title="Bullet time">Bullet time</a></li>

<li><a href="Dolly_zoom" title="Dolly zoom">Dolly zoom</a></li>

<li><a href="Forced_perspective" title="Forced perspective">Forced perspective</a></li>

<li><a href="Front_projection" class="mw-redirect" title="Front projection">Front projection</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared_photography" title="Infrared photography">Infrared photography</a></li>

<li><a href="Lens_flare" title="Lens flare">Lens flares</a></li>

<li><a href="Lighting_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighting effects">Lighting effects</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiple_exposure" title="Multiple exposure">Multiple exposure</a></li>

<li><a href="Photographic_filter" title="Photographic filter">Filtration</a></li>

<li><a href="Rear_projection" title="Rear projection">Rear projection</a></li>

<li><a href="Reverse_motion" title="Reverse motion">Reverse motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Sch%C3%BCfftan_process" title="Schüfftan process">Schüfftan process</a></li>

<li><a href="Shutter_(photography)" title="Shutter (photography)">Shutter effects</a></li>

<li><a href="Tilted_plane_focus" title="Tilted plane focus">Tilted plane focus</a></li>

<li><a href="Time-lapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Time-lapse">Time-lapse</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fast_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast motion">Fast motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Slow_motion" title="Slow motion">Slow motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Speed_ramping" class="mw-redirect" title="Speed ramping">Speed ramping</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Stop_motion" title="Stop motion">Stop motion</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:5.0em"><a href="Visual_effects" title="Visual effects">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bullet_time" title="Bullet time">Bullet time</a></li>

<li><a href="Chroma_key" title="Chroma key">Chroma key</a></li>

<li><a href="Compositing" title="Compositing">Compositing</a> (<a href="Digital_compositing" title="Digital compositing">digital</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Go_motion" title="Go motion">Go motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Introvision" title="Introvision">Introvision</a></li>

<li><a href="Match_moving" title="Match moving">Match moving</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_printer" title="Optical printer">Optical printing</a></li>

<li><a href="Smallgantics" class="mw-redirect" title="Smallgantics">Smallgantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Split_screen_(filmmaking)" class="mw-redirect" title="Split screen (filmmaking)">Split screen</a></li>

<li><a href="Stop_motion" title="Stop motion">Stop motion</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Special_effects104" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Special_effects104" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Special_effect" title="Special effect">Special effects</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:5.0em"><a href="Practical_effect" title="Practical effect">Practical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aerial_rigging" title="Aerial rigging">Aerial rigging</a> (<a href="Wire-flying" class="mw-redirect" title="Wire-flying">wire-flying</a>)</li>